Dementia

Globally, the number of people living with dementia is anticipated to increase from 57 million in 2019 to 153 million in 2050, an increase of 168% (4). In the UK in 2015, around 850,000 people were estimated to be living with dementia, which is equivalent to 1 in 14 people over 65 years of age, or 1 in 79 of the whole population (5). An estimated 90,000 people are living with dementia in Scotland, including an estimated 3,000 individuals under the age of 65 (young-onset dementia). Within this population, around two-thirds of people with dementia live at home, with the remainder in acute or residential care. The latter accounts for at least 66% of the care home population in Scotland, and this proportion continues to increase. The estimated annual incidence of diagnosed dementia is approximately 20,000 (6).

This information is for commissioners, managers, trainers, and health care practitioners to consider the evidence base for the delivery of psychological interventions for people with dementia. This information is also for people diagnosed with dementia, their families, and carers.

Exclusions for topic: This topic does not cover pharmacological interventions or interventions which are not informed by psychological theory. There are a wider range of non-psychological interventions and supports that are beyond the scope of this topic and full guidance on best practice can be found in National Institute of Health and Care Excellence NICE 42 (2), and Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network SIGN 168 (3).

Psychological interventions may be indicated for a range of symptoms occurring in the context of dementia, and the evidence relating to these areas is summarised below.

Psychological Interventions to Support Cognition

Psychosocial interventions, including those using physical, cognitive and social methods (7), have been found to be effective at improving global physical and cognitive functioning, social interaction, activities of daily life and quality of life for people with dementia. For cognitive outcomes, specifically, research identifies the positive effects of cognitive stimulation and cognitive rehabilitation.

A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (8) indicates that Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) has a significant beneficial impact on global cognition, language, working memory, depression, distressed behaviour (reported as neuropsychiatric symptoms), communication, self-reported QoL and severity of dementia. Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (9) is a manualised intervention, comprising 14 group sessions, each 45-minute duration, delivered twice a week over a seven-week period. The CST protocol provides structured and stimulating activities in supportive group environments. Activities are designed to preserve existing skills by engaging various cognitive domains, such as memory, attention, language, and executive functions.

Cognitive Rehabilitation (CR) (10) is a personalised approach, based on a problem‐solving framework, which enables people with dementia to engage in, or manage everyday activities, function optimally, and maintain as much of their independence as possible. A systematic review indicates that CR is helpful in enabling people with mild or moderate dementia to improve their ability to manage the everyday activities targeted in the intervention (11).  Thus, assisting people with dementia to overcome some of the everyday barriers caused by cognitive and functional difficulties. Future research could help identify avenues to maximise CR effects and achieve wider impacts on functional ability and wellbeing.

In contrast to CST and CR, cognitive training showed less favourable results, with limited evidence of improvement in cognitive functioning (7).

Psychological Interventions for Depression

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and CBT-based interventions have the strongest evidence for psychological interventions for symptoms of depression in people with dementia and mild cognitive impairment. A systematic review of randomised controlled trials (12) compared cognitive behavioural therapy-based treatments (including behavioural activation, cognitive behavioural therapy, and problem-solving therapy) to treatment as usual or another active intervention. This indicated that CBT‐based treatments, plus usual care, slightly reduced symptoms of depression for people with dementia and mild cognitive impairment, and increased rates of remission of depression. 

Important factors that affected the results included the initial level of depression, diagnosis, and the content of the intervention. The review also showed a small positive effect on quality of life (QoL) and activities of daily living following CBT-based treatments. No adverse events were reported for any of the interventions.

A practice-based evidence study completed by NHS England Psychological Therapies Services (13) indicated that depression and anxiety scores in people with mild to moderate dementia significantly reduced over the course of psychological treatment (mostly CBT or CBT guided self-help) with large effect sizes. The difference between pre- and post-intervention in people with dementia did appear to be clinically meaningful. However, compared to a matched group without dementia, they were less likely to meet criteria for reliable improvement or recovery.

Psychological Interventions for Anxiety

The systematic review (12) evidence reported for depression discussed above showed uncertain results for anxiety, indicating only low-level evidence. There was evidence from small pilot studies, but this included some insignificant findings. A scoping meta review (14) including practice-based evidence highlighted that anxiety in dementia has been less frequently studied, and overall, there were no positive findings for people with dementia and anxiety using psychological interventions. Research in this area is limited by inconsistent definitions, with the terms stress and anxiety being used interchangeably, and a mix of clinical and non-clinical samples in and across studies.

Anxiety remains a common presenting symptom alongside dementia and practitioners are recommended to consider the Matrix evidence for anxiety in conjunction with the Delivering Effective Psychological Therapies and Interventions to Older People.

Psychological Interventions to address Insomnia

For people living with dementia, SIGN 168 (3) recommends a multicomponent approach to managing insomnia and sleep disturbances. This may include sleep hygiene education, regular exposure to daylight (but not bright light therapy), physical exercise, and personalised social activities. A recent systematic review (15) indicates some positive effects from interventions involving physical and social activities, carer-focused interventions, and multimodal approaches. However, evidence remains inconsistent and inconclusive, and no single or combined intervention has yet demonstrated clear or reliable improvements in sleep outcomes with sufficient certainty.
Insomnia is a common presenting symptom alongside dementia and practitioners are recommended to consider the Matrix evidence for Insomnia in conjunction with the Delivering Effective Psychological Therapies and Interventions to Older People.

Psychological Interventions to Support Mood and Wellbeing in Institutional Settings

The effects of reminiscence interventions, such as Reminiscence Therapy (RT) (16) have been inconsistent, with studies typically small in size, and differing across settings and modalities.  RT (16) has demonstrated some positive effects on QoL, cognition, communication, and mood in people with dementia. Recent meta-analyses suggest that RT can lead to meaningful improvements in psychological wellbeing among people living with dementia. In one review, RT was associated with a moderate reduction in depression, alongside small but significant reductions in both distressed behaviours and indications of stress measures. Small but significant improvements in QoL were also reported. Another meta-analysis of 29 studies (3,102 participants) (17) similarly reported that RT had a moderate positive effect on depression, with smaller but significant effects on reducing neuropsychiatric symptoms (distressed behaviour) and improving QoL.

Studies conducted in care homes show the widest range of benefits, including improvements in QoL, cognition and communication at follow‐up. However, the wide range of RT interventions across studies makes comparison and evaluation of relative benefits difficult.

Psychological interventions for distressed behaviour

National clinical guidelines, including SIGN 168 (3) and NICE 42 (2), recommend that non-pharmacological interventions for the behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia, distressed behaviour, be considered prior to the administration of psychotropic medications. The Scottish Dementia Strategy (2023) states that “non-pharmacological interventions may improve cognition, social engagement and QoL and decrease stress and distress”.

For managing behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia, distressed behaviour, in care homes guidelines including SIGN 168 (3) and NICE 42 (2) recommend multi-component programmes (18) that include staff training, managerial support for implementation, and interventions tailored to the needs of the person with dementia. In the first instance, a highly specialist and comprehensive assessment is recommended, and interventions should be formulation led, acknowledging the person with dementia’s preferences, skills and abilities.

The complexity of both behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia, such as distressed behaviour, coupled with the variations in care environments across studies of psychosocial interventions, leads to a lack of robust findings on the efficacy of these interventions. However, there is a general consensus that formulation led interventions, usually based on a functional analysis (19) and tailored to the individual’s specific needs are best practice (SIGN 168 (3) and NICE 42) (2). The individualised interventions indicated by the formulation may include psychological interventions, as well as a range of interventions delivered by members across the multi-disciplinary care team.

The British Psychological Society (20) highlights a number of multi-component interventions that use personalised forms of care to prevent and de-escalate distressed behaviour. The Newcastle model, employed in the Focused Intervention Training and Support (21) (FITS) randomised control trial and subsequently implementated in care homes (22), is the most frequently used of 32 formulation models in a UK review of models (23). The NHS Education for Scotland Stress and Distress programme is also based on the Newcastle Model. Other evidence-based multi-component training programmes that promote wellbeing and improve carers’ skills are also highlighted, including Dementia Care Mapping (24), Well-being and Health for People Living with Dementia (WHELD) (25), and Positive Approaches to Care (26).

Strategies for addressing organisational barriers will be key to achieving the desired outcomes from any training delivered, given the persistence of such barriers to implementation in studies of multi-component intervention training within care homes and other institutional settings. Research (27) suggests implementing interventions with a clear evidence base; scaling up implementation following small scale testing; nationwide training programmes to train providers, and national endorsement of the intervention. This requires partnership working, funding, and educational strategies including ongoing support and consultation for clinicians.

In the review of the evidence above for RT (17) and CST (8), it should be noted that both interventions report positive outcomes for distressed behaviour and can be considered evidence-based elements of multi-component interventions.

Multi-component interventions based on formulation may include practices that are beyond the Matrix focus on psychological interventions, such as the therapeutic use of dolls (28-30) and simulated person therapy (31). The evidence base for these as stand-alone interventions is inconsistent, in part due to the lack of standardisation of the approaches. As part of a multi-component intervention based on a functional analysis these approaches may enhance and maintain the wellbeing of people with dementia rather than specifically addressing distressed behaviours.

Evidence is emerging for music-based therapy (32) as a component of formulation-based multi-component interventions. A systematic review showed that when compared to usual care, providing at least five sessions of a music-based therapeutic intervention likely improves depressive symptoms, and may improve distressed behaviour at the end of treatment.

In summary, the evidence is emerging and seems to suggest that a combination of an assessment based on a functional analysis and individually tailored interventions, with particular emphasis on the training of care staff as the agents of change, is effective.

Psychological interventions to support caregivers of people with dementia and distressed behaviour

A systematic review of psychological interventions (33) involving people with dementia and their carers have some promise but are still far from uniformly effective across distressed behaviour, QoL, and caregiver burden.

Approaches that show promise in supporting carers to manage the distressed behaviour of the person living with dementia are those based on health stress models, in which the goal is to change the nature of specific stressors (e.g. a particular distressed behaviour of the person living with dementia), the caregiver’s  appraisal of the behaviour, and/or the caregivers’ response to the stressors (20). There are good quality studies in this area including REACH (Resources for Enhancing Alzheimer’s Caregiver Health) (34); COPE (Care of Persons with Dementia in their Environments (35)) and TAP (Tailored Activity Program (36)). Most of these interventions involve delivering 8–15 training/contact sessions helping family members to identify difficulties and to understand and remedy potential causes. These interventions have a ‘problem-solving’ approach through which family members learn to assess the situation and produce tailored management strategies. These approaches are not generally based on a detailed formulation (18).

Psychological Interventions to support Coping, Loss and Adjustment in Caregivers

There is good quality evidence to suggest that CBT, delivered in groups or one to one, is effective in addressing depression and subjective caregiver burden (37-39).

Psychoeducation programmes that teach caregivers adaptive skills for coping with caregiving demands and stress using a structured format (more straightforward information giving and supportive psychoeducational approaches were beyond the scope of this review), often including a CBT or problem-solving component (e.g. the Strategies for Relatives intervention) (40,41), have been shown to be effective in reducing anxiety and depression. Effects are maintained at two- to six- year follow-up (42), and are cost effective (43). 

Other interventions have promising emerging evidence, but it is not yet sufficient for a recommendation. This includes mindfulness (44-47) based interventions and Acceptance and Commitment (48,49) Therapy.

There is evidence (50) that carers of people living with dementia can experience loss and grief reactions, and that intervention strategies that directly target grief and loss may be helpful to consider. A CBT-based intervention (51) including a grief model reduced carer burden in one large randomised trial. A number of smaller studies (52-54) based on different grief models have demonstrated the feasibility and potential for grief interventions in reducing carer burden and guilt.

Overview of Evidence for Harms and Adverse Effects

Like all treatments, psychological therapies and interventions also have the potential to have adverse effects. Until recently, information on potential harms and rates of adverse effects have not been gathered systematically (see information relating to safety in the delivery of psychological therapies). Although reports of adverse effects are increasingly included in research trials (as in the review of CBT based treatments for depression (12) discussed above) and gathered as part of service provision we do not know if psychological interventions cause more, fewer or similar numbers of adverse effects than no treatment or another treatment, because the evidence in this area is of very low quality at present.

Recommendation	Who for?	List of Interventions	Type of psychological practice	Evidence	Efficacy
First line recommendation	People with Dementia and Depression	CBT and CBT-based interventions (12)	enhanced/specialist	A	Low
	People with Dementia - Supporting Cognition (mild to moderate dementia)	CST (55,56) Cognitive Rehabilitation (8)	Enhanced/specialist Enhanced/Specialist	A A	Low to Medium
	People with Dementia in Institutional Settings - Mood and Wellbeing	Reminiscence Therapy (16)	Enhanced, specialist	A	Low
	People with Dementia -distressed behaviour	Multi-component interventions based on Functional Analysis and individual formulation e.g. FITS (21,22), DCM (24), PAC (26)	Enhanced, specialist	A	Low
	Psychosocial interventions focused on loss, coping and adjustment for carers of people with dementia	CBT (37-39) (individual, group) CBT focused on pre-death grief (51) Psychoeducation Programmes - with CBT or Problem-solving components (e.g. START (40))	enhanced/specialist	A A
	Carers of people with dementia - Distressed Behaviour	Approaches based on health stress model that include problem solving e.g. COPE (35), REACH (34), TAP (36)	Enhanced/Specialist	A	Low

Advisory Group – Heads of Older People Psychology Services acted in this role

Technical Group – Marie Claire Shankland, Sue Turnball, David Gritner, with thanks to Stephanie Crawford and colleagues.

1.ICD-11.

2.Overview | Dementia: assessment, management and support for people living with dementia and their carers | Guidance | NICE2018; . Accessed Dec 9, 2025.

3.Assessment, diagnosis, care and support for people with dementia and their carers (SIGN-168)2023; . Accessed Dec 9, 2025.

4.Nichols E, Steinmetz JD, Vollset SE, Fukutaki K, Chalek J, Abd-Allah F, et al. Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet Public Health 2022 February 1;7(2):e105–e125.

5.Martin Prince, Martin Knapp &, Maelenn Guerchet, &nbsp, Paul McCrone, Matthew Prina, et al. Dementia UK: Second Edition - Overview. 2023.

6.Scottish Government. Mental Health: Dementia 2021. 2021; .

7.McDermott O, Charlesworth G, Hogervorst E, Stoner C, Moniz-Cook E, Spector A, et al. Psychosocial interventions for people with dementia: a synthesis of systematic reviews. Aging & Mental Health 2019;23(4):393–403.

8.Desai R, Leung WG, Fearn C, John A, Stott J, Spector A. Effectiveness of Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) for mild to moderate dementia: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomised control trials using the original CST protocol. Ageing Research Reviews 2024;97:102312.

9.Spector A., Thorgrimsen L., Woods B., Royan L., Davies S., Butterworth M., et al. Efficacy of an evidence-based cognitive stimulation therapy programme for people with dementia: Randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 2003;183(SEPT.) (pp 248-254):Date of Publication: 01 Se 2003.

10.Clare L, Woods RT, Moniz Cook ED, Orrell M, Spector A. Cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive training for early-stage Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003:(4)CD–2003.

11.Kudlicka A, Martyr A, Bahar-Fuchs A, Sabates J, Woods B, Clare L. Cognitive rehabilitation for people with mild to moderate dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023;6:CD013388.

12.Orgeta V, Leung P, Del-Pino-Casado R, Qazi A, Orrell M, Spector AE, et al. Psychological treatments for depression and anxiety in dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2022;4:CD009125.

13.Bell G, Baou CE, Saunders R, Buckman JEJ, Charlesworth G, Richards M, et al. Effectiveness of primary care psychological therapy services for the treatment of depression and anxiety in people living with dementia: Evidence from national healthcare records in England. EClinicalMedicine 2022 Oct;52:101692.

14.Charlesworth G, Eastham C, Morris L. Talking therapies for anxiety and depression in people affected by dementia: A scoping meta-review. Psychology & Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice 2025.

15.Wilfling D, Calo S, Dichter MN, Meyer G, Möhler R, Köpke S. Non‐pharmacological interventions for sleep disturbances in people with dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023(1).

16.Woods B, O'Philbin L, Farrell EM, Spector AE, Orrell M. Reminiscence therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018;3:CD001120.

17.Ita Daryanti Saragih, &nbsp, Santo Imanuel Tonapa, Ching-Teng Yao, Ice Septriani Saragih, Bih-O Lee. Effects of reminiscence therapy in people with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2022.

18.James I.A., Gray K., MonizCook E., Lee K., Reichelt K., Richardson J. Behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia: A new framework for holistic understanding and non-pharmacological management. BJPsych Advances 2022;28(1):11–20.

19.Moniz Cook ED, Swift K, James I, Malouf R, De Vugt M, Verhey F. Functional analysis-based interventions for challenging behaviour in dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012:(2)CD–2012 Feb 15.

20.James I, Duffy F, Moniz-Cook E, Reichelt F. First line psychosocial alternatives to psychotropic medication for behaviours that challenge in dementia care: A toolkit for health and social care practitioners. ; 2024.

21.Fossey J, Ballard C, Juszczak E, James I, Alder N, Jacoby R, et al. Effect of enhanced psychosocial care on antipsychotic use in nursing home residents with severe dementia: cluster randomised trial. BMJ 2006 /03/16:bmj;bmj.38782.575868.7Cv1.

22.Brooker DJ, Latham I, Evans SC, Jacobson N, Perry W, Bray J, et al. FITS into practice: translating research into practice in reducing the use of anti-psychotic medication for people with dementia living in care homes. Aging & Mental Health 2016 2015-07-13;20(7):709.

23.James I, Mahesh M, Duffy F, Reichelt F, Moniz-Cook E. UK clinicians' views on the use of formulations for the management of BPSD: a multidisciplinary survey. Aging and Mental Health 2020 -10-15;25.

24.Sloane PD, Brooker D, Cohen L, Douglass C, Edelman P, Fulton BR, et al. Dementia care mapping as a research tool. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007 Jun;22(6):580–589.

25.Ballard C, Orrell M, Moniz-Cook E, Woods R, Whitaker R, Corbett A, et al. Improving mental health and reducing antipsychotic use in people with dementia in care homes: the WHELD research programme including two RCTs. Programme Grants for Applied Research 2020 /07/27;8(6):1–98.

26.Ehlman MC, Nimkar S, Nolan BAD, Thomas P, Caballero CE, Snow T. Health Workers' Knowledge and Perceptions on Dementia in Skilled Nursing Homes: A Pilot Implementation of Teepa Snow's Positive Approach to Care Certification Course. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2018;38(3):190–197.

27.Bennett S, Laver K, MacAndrew M, Beattie E, Clemson L, Runge C, et al. Implementation of evidence-based, non-pharmacological interventions addressing behavior and psychological symptoms of dementia: a systematic review focused on implementation strategies. International Psychogeriatrics 2021 September 1;33(9):947–975.

28.Ng QX, Ho CYX, Koh SSH, Tan WC, Chan HW. Doll therapy for dementia sufferers: A systematic review. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2017 -02;26:42–46.

29.Henderson E, McConnell H, Mitchell G. Therapeutic Doll Interventions for People Living with Dementia in Care Homes: A Scoping Review. Nursing Reports 2024 /12;14(4):2706–2718.

30.Peng Y, Liu Y, Guo Z, Zhang Y, Sha L, Wang X, et al. Doll therapy for improving behavior, psychology and cognition among older nursing home residents with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Geriatric Nursing 2024 -01-01;55:119–129.

31.Abraha I, Rimland JM, Lozano-Montoya I, Dell'Aquila G, Vélez-Díaz-Pallarés M, Trotta FM, et al. Simulated presence therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020(4).

32.Steen JTvd, Wouden JCvd, Methley AM, Smaling HJA, Vink AC, Bruinsma MS. Music‐based therapeutic interventions for people with dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2025(3).

33.Trivedi DP, Braun A, Dickinson A, Gage H, Hamilton L, Goodman C, et al. Managing behavioural and psychological symptoms in community dwelling older people with dementia: 1. A systematic review of the effectiveness of interventions. Dementia 2019 November 1;18(7-8):2925–2949.

34.Schulz R, Burgio L, Burns R, Eisdorfer C, Gallagher-Thompson D, Gitlin LN, et al. Resources for Enhancing Alzheimer's Caregiver Health (REACH): Overview, Site-Specific Outcomes, and Future Directions. Gerontologist 2003 -08-01;43(4):514–520.

35.Gitlin LN, Winter L, Dennis MP, Hodgson N, Hauck WW. A Biobehavioral Home-Based Intervention and the Well-being of Patients With Dementia and Their Caregivers: The COPE Randomized Trial. JAMA 2010 -09-01;304(9):983–991.

36.de Oliveira AM, Radanovic M, Homem de Mello PC, Buchain PC, Dias Vizzotto A, Harder J, et al. An intervention to reduce neuropsychiatric symptoms and caregiver burden in dementia: Preliminary results from a randomized trial of the tailored activity program-outpatient version. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2019;34(9):1301–1307.

37.Wiegelmann H, Speller S, Verhaert L, Schirra-Weirich L, Wolf-Ostermann K. Psychosocial interventions to support the mental health of informal caregivers of persons living with dementia – a systematic literature review. BMC Geriatr 2021 February 1;21(1):94.

38.Lee M, Ryoo JH, Chung M, Anderson JG, Rose K, Williams IC. Effective interventions for depressive symptoms among caregivers of people with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dementia (London) 2020 -10;19(7):2368–2398.

39.Hopkinson MD, Reavell J, Lane DA, Mallikarjun P. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Depression, Anxiety, and Stress in Caregivers of Dementia Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Gerontologist 2019 -07-16;59(4):e343–e362.

40.Livingston G, Barber J, Rapaport P, Knapp M, Griffin M, King D, et al. Clinical effectiveness of a manual based coping strategy programme (START, STrAtegies for RelaTives) in promoting the mental health of carers of family members with dementia: pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2013 Oct 25;347:f6276.

41.Cheng S, Au A, Losada A, Thompson LW, Gallagher-Thompson D. Psychological Interventions for Dementia Caregivers: What We Have Achieved, What We Have Learned. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2019;21(7):59.

42.Livingston G, Barber J, Rapaport P, Knapp M, Griffin M, King D, et al. Long-term clinical and cost-effectiveness of psychological intervention for family carers of people with dementia: a single-blind, randomised, controlled trial. The Lancet.Psychiatry 2014;1(7):539–548.

43.Knapp M, King D, Romeo R, Schehl B, Barber J, Griffin M, et al. Cost effectiveness of a manual based coping strategy programme in promoting the mental health of family carers of people with dementia (the START (STrAtegies for RelaTives) study): a pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2013 Oct 25;347:f6342.

44.Liu Z, Sun Y, Zhong B. Mindfulness‐based stress reduction for family carers of people with dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018(8).

45.Berk L, Warmenhoven F, van Os J, van Boxtel M. Mindfulness Training for People With Dementia and Their Caregivers: Rationale, Current Research, and Future Directions. Front Psychol 2018 June 13;9.

46.Collins RN, Kishita N. The Effectiveness of Mindfulness- and Acceptance-Based Interventions for Informal Caregivers of People With Dementia: A Meta-Analysis. Gerontologist 2019 -07-16;59(4):e363–e379.

47.Shim M, Tilley JL, Im S, Price K, Gonzalez A. A Systematic Review of Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment or Dementia and Caregivers. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2021 -11;34(6):528–554.

48.Fauth EB, Novak JR, Levin ME. Outcomes from a pilot online Acceptance and Commitment Therapy program for dementia family caregivers. Aging & Mental Health 2022 -07-14;26(8):1620–1629.

49.Atefi GL, de Vugt ME, van Knippenberg RJM, Levin ME, Verhey FRJ, Bartels SL. The use of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) in informal caregivers of people with dementia and other long-term or chronic conditions: A systematic review and conceptual integration. Clinical Psychology Review 2023 -11-01;105:102341.

50.Chan D, Livingston G, Jones L, Sampson EL. Grief reactions in dementia carers: a systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013 Jan;28(1):1–17.

51.Meichsner F, Wilz G. Dementia caregivers' coping with pre-death grief: effects of a CBT-based intervention. Aging Ment Health 2018 -02;22(2):218–225.

52.MacCourt P, McLennan M, Somers S, Krawczyk M. Effectiveness of a Grief Intervention for Caregivers of People With Dementia. Omega - Journal of Death & Dying 2017 Aug;75(3):230–247.

53.Bravo-Benítez J, Cruz-Quintana F, Fernández-Alcántara M, Pérez-Marfil MN. Intervention Program to Improve Grief-Related Symptoms in Caregivers of Patients Diagnosed With Dementia. Front Psychol 2021 February 11;12.

54.Paun O, Farran CJ, Fogg L, Loukissa D, Thomas PE, Hoyem R. A chronic grief intervention for dementia family caregivers in long-term care. West J Nurs Res 2015 -01;37(1):6–27.

55.Saragih ID, Tonapa SI, Saragih IS, Lee B. Effects of cognitive stimulation therapy for people with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. International Journal of Nursing Studies 2022 -04-01;128:104181.

56.Desai R., Leung W.G., Fearn C., John A., Stott J., Spector A. Effectiveness of Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) for mild to moderate dementia: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomised control trials using the original CST protocol. Ageing Research Reviews 2024;97(pagination):Article Number: 102312. Date of Publication: 01 Jun 2024.